Educational Thread about Educational Stuff.

[Deleted User]

C'mon guys, we need more people to write stuff, me and Ted can't write it all.

The Holocaust

6 million people were killed by hitler, if you believe such tall tales.

[Teddy]

Crisis Situations

Surviving Tip!
In crisis situations, the key to survive is communication. Find a radio.

Normal functioning of country condition
When administation, economy and other department of social life are working normaly like everyday but appering danger can disappear by normal actions.
Extraordinary condition
Condition of natural disaster, special condition, lockdown- when we have special danger, require special and unusual actions and resoures from laws and rules aren't enough.
War condition
I think do you know what is it....if not....this is hell on Earth...Oh and war is in relation to other county(-ies).

(This is the Polish conditions, in your country it can other)

Caustions

Natural:
-Strong winds,tornado
-Plentiful rain
-Extremal air temperature
-Drought
-Volcanic eruptions
-Earthquake
-Fire
-Avalanche
Civilian-Economical:
-Sickness epidemic
-Chemical and biological pollutions
-Rise of radioactivity of water, earth, air
-Problems to supply gas, eletrical energy, water
-Problems in transport
-Pollution of environment
-Accident in factories
-Rise intensity of UV
Social-political:
-A lot of migrations in country
-Problems in public order(strikes etc.)
-Terrorism
-War

What to do when goverment will announcement alarm of tornado and other strong winds?

-You need to know where you can cut off water,gas, energy.
-You need to know how to commnicate with persons(family,friends) where they are.
-Check condition of roof and other part of building.
-Learn inmates (family,friends) how to call local services (police etc.).
-Remove thing from balconies and parapets. These things can be dangerous.
-Close all doors and windows.
-Park vehicles in safety distance from trees, pillars, sings and other things what wind can broke. They can broke your vehicle!
-Supply First Aid Kit.
-Prepare supply of flashlight, candles,bateies,lighters or matches. Prepare radio too!
-Prepare necessary things to evacuation.

Hope you enjoyed! And I hope you know what to do now! Stay safe!

[Haarek]

I spent the whole day making this so hope you like it, I made refrences and linked to everything important. With images too.

Indian yellow-nosed albatross
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Indian yellow-nosed albatross

Off the south-east coast of Tasmania

Conservation status

Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[1]

Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Aves
Order:
Procellariiformes
Family:
Diomedeidae
Genus:
Thalassarche
Species:
T. carteri
Binomial name
Thalassarche carteri
(Rothschild, 1903)
Synonyms
Thalassarche chlororhynchos carteri
Thalassarche bassi
The Indian yellow-nosed albatross (Thalassarche carteri) is a member of the albatross family, and is the smallest of the mollymawks. In 2004, BirdLife International[2] split this species from the Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross; however Clements[3] has not split it yet, and the SACC has not either, but recognises the need for a proposal.[4]

Contents
  [hide] 

• 1Taxonomy
  
• 2Description
  
• 3Behaviour
  • 3.1Reproduction
    
  • 3.2Feeding
    
• 4Range and habitat
  
• 5Conservation
  
• 6Footnotes
  
• 7References
  
• 8External links
  

Taxonomy[edit]

Illustration by Keulemans

Mollymawks are a type of albatross that belong to the family Diomedeidae of the order Procellariiformes, along with shearwaters, fulmars, storm petrels, and diving petrels. They share certain identifying features.

• They have nasal passages called naricorns attached to the upper bill.
  
• The bills of Procellariiformes are unique in that they are split into between 7 and 9 horny plates.
  
• They make a stomach oil made of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This is used against predators and as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights.[5]
  
• They have a salt gland above the nasal passage. It helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. It excretes a high-saline solution from the nose.[6]
  

The type-specimen is a black-beaked juvenile, which has caused confusion over its status until recently.[7]
Description[edit]

East of [url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Stephens_(New_South_Wales)]Port Stephens

The Indian yellow-nosed albatross weighs 2.55 kg (5.6 lb), is 76 cm (30 in)[8] long and is 2 m (6.6 ft) across the wings.[9] The adult has a pale grey or white head and nape, with a dark grey mantle, upperwing, and tail. Its rump and underparts are white, and its underwing is white with a black tip with a narrow black margin at the leading edge. Its bill is black with a yellow upper ridge and a red tip. The juvenile has a white head and all black bill.[8] It is difficult to distinguish from the closely related grey-headed albatross and Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross, the latter with which it was long considered conspecific and is still considered by some a subspecies of. It can be distinguished from the Atlantic yellow-nosed by its head, the grey plumage of which is lighter on the Indian yellow-nosed.
Behaviour[edit]
Reproduction[edit]
Like all albatrosses, the Indian yellow-nosed albatross is a colonial breeder. It breeds annually,[8] and the adults begin breeding at the age of eight years. A mud nest is built in bare rocky areas or in tussock grass or ferns,[8][10] and a single egg is laid. the nesting season begins in August, with laying occurring around September/October. Incubation lasts around 70 days. After hatching the chick takes around 115 days to fledge.
Feeding[edit]
It feeds on fish, crustaceans and cephalopods.[8][11]
Range and habitat[edit]
Breeding Population and Trends[8]Location
Population
Date
Trend
Amsterdam Island
27,000 pair
1997
Declining
Prince Edward Islands
7,500 pair
2002
Stable
Crozet Island
7,030 pair
2007

Kerguelen Island
50 pair
1998

Île Saint-Paul
3 pair
2007

Total
65,000
2004
Declining
It breeds on Prince Edward Islands, the Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Island, Amsterdam Island (on the Falaises d'Entrecasteaux) and St Paul Islands in the Indian Ocean. When feeding during incubation, birds will forage up to 1,500 km (930 mi) from the colony.[12] At sea it ranges from South Africa to the Pacific Ocean just beyond New Zealand, ranging from 30° S to 50° S.[8][13]
Conservation[edit]
It is considered to be an endangered species by the IUCN,[1] due to dramatic declines in the last seventy years, caused by interactions with longline fisheries and the outbreak of introduced diseases, such as avian cholera and Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae.[14] It has an occurrence range of 35,300,000 km2 (13,600,000 sq mi) and a breeding range of 1,400 km2 (540 sq mi). A 2004 population estimate established that around a total of 65,000 adult birds are alive. This is based on earlier counts as follows: 27,000 breeding pairs breed on Amsterdam Island,[15] and 7,500 pair on Prince Edward Island,[14] 7,030 on Crozet Island,[16] 50 on Kerguelen Island,[17] and 3 pair on St. Paul Island for a total of 41,580 pair or 83,000 mature individuals. Take into account decreasing trends for the stated number.
Monitoring of the birds and studying of its foraging is an ongoing project on Amsterdam Island, and Prince Edward Islands is a nature preserve. A vaccination has been developed but remains untested.[14] Finally, in 2006, theIndian Ocean Tuna Commission adopted a measure to require longline boats to use a bird streamer south of 30°S, and South Africa requires its boats to use a variety of mitigation processes.[8]
Footnotes[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b BirdLife International (2012). "Thalassarche carteri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2.International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
   
2. Jump up^ BirdLife International (2008)(b)
   
3. Jump up^ Clements, J. (2007)
   
4. Jump up^ Remsen Jr., J. V. (2008)
   
5. Jump up^ Double, M. C. (2003)
   
6. Jump up^ Ehrlich, Paul R. (1988)
   
7. Jump up^ http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/30_1/30_1_15.pdf
   
8. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h BirdLife International (2008a)
   
9. Jump up^ http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Thalassarche_carteri/more_info.html?section=factsAndStatus
   
10. Jump up^ Brooke M. (2004)
    
11. Jump up^ Cherel Y. & Klages N. (1998)
    
12. Jump up^ Pinaud D. & Weimerskirch, H. (2007)
    
13. Jump up^ Harrison P. (1983)
    
14. ^ Jump up to:a b c Ryan, P. G. et al. (2002)
    
15. Jump up^ Weimerskirch, H. (2008)
    
16. Jump up^ ACAP (2007)
    
17. Jump up^ Weimerskirch, H. & Jouventin P. (1998)
    

References[edit]

• ACAP (2007). "ACAP species assessments, Indian Yellow-nosed albatross." (pdf). ACAP.
  
• BirdLife International (2008a). "Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross Thalassarche carteri - BirdLife Species Factsheet". Data Zone. Retrieved 18 Feb 2009.
  
• BirdLife International (2008). "The BirdLife checklist of the birds of the world, with conservation status and taxonomic sources." (xls). Retrieved 18 Feb 2009.[dead link]
  
• Brooke, M. (2004). "Procellariidae". Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850125-0.
  
• Cherel, Y.; Klages, N. (1998). "A review of the food of albatrosses". In Robertson, G.; Gales, G. Albatross biology and conservation. Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty & Sons. pp. 113–136.
  
• Clements, James (2007). The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World (6 ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4501-9.
  
• Double, M. C. (2003). "Procellariiformes (Tubenosed Seabirds)". In Hutchins, Michael; Jackson, Jerome A.; Bock, Walter J.; Olendorf, Donna. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. 8. Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins. Joseph E. Trumpey, Chief Scientific Illustrator (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 107–111. ISBN 0-7876-5784-0.
  
• Ehrlich, Paul R.; Dobkin, David, S.; Wheye, Darryl (1988). The Birders Handbook (First ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. pp. 29–31. ISBN 0-671-65989-8.
  
• Harrison, P. (1983). Seabirds: an identification guide. Beckenham, U.K.: Croom Helm.
  
• Pinaud, D.; Weimerskirch, H. (2007). "At-sea distribution and scale-dependent foraging behaviour of petrels and albatrosses: a comparative study". Journal of Animal Ecology. 76: 9–19. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2006.01186.x.
  
• Remsen Jr., J. V.; et al. (7 Aug 2008). "A classification of the bird species of South America, South American Classification Committee, American Ornithologists' Union". South American Classification Committee. American Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 18 Feb 2009.
  
• Ryan, P. G.; Keith, D. G.; Kroese, M. (2002). "Seabird bycatch by tuna longline fisheries off southern Africa, 1998-2000". South African Journal of Marine Science (24): 103.
  
• Weimerskirch, H. (2008) in litt.
  
• Weimerskirch, H.; Jouventin, P. (1998). "Changes in population sizes and demographic parameters of six albatross species breeding on the French sub-antarctic islands". In Robertson, G.; Gales, R. Albatross biology and conservation. Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty and Sons. pp. 84–91.
  

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related toThalassarche carteri.

• BirdLife Species Factsheet.
  
• ARKive - images and movies of the Indian yellow-nosed albatross (Thalassarche carteri)
  

[lordofthesilver]

Stuka Dive Bomber
The Ju-87 Stuka dive bomber was the airborne element of the German Blitzkrieg
[Image: stuka.jpg]

Ju-87 Stuka dive bomber

The Ju-87 Stuka dive bomber was the classic precision bomber which provided very effective "airborne artillery" support to the rapidly advancing columns of German tanks in their Blitzkrieg tactic. Its main disadvantage was that it was a slow and easy target for enemy fighters.

Unlike high altitude level bombing, which was not precise, and unlike low altitude precision attacks with guns and rockets which became more popular later in the war as those smaller air weapons became more powerful, dive bombing was highly effective since the beginning of World War 2 for many types of precision attacks, such as cutting roads, smashing bridges, destroying supply convoys and installations, attacking ground forces of all types, cracking fortified positions and tanks, even sinking ships of all sizes. It remained the precision bombing method of choice much later after World War 2 until it was gradually replaced by using guided bombs and missiles for precision air attacks.

These abilities were exactly what the German military needed for the airborne element of their new and revolutionary Blitzkrieg (lightning war) tactic when they developed it before World War 2 .

History

Spoiler :

The Stuka first flew in 1935. It was perfectly suited for its role of tactical precision dive bomber. It was equipped with many dedicated special features, the important "small details" of design that make one aircraft much better than another. The Stuka had a dedicated autopilot system that automatically brought it to a dive when the pilot extracted the dive brakes, prevented damaging pilot stirring during the dive while not limiting the pilot's ability to aim, and then automatically pulled the aircraft out of the dive and back to level flight when the bomb was dropped. Since the G-suit was not yet invented then, pilots could temporarily lose consciousness because of the high G force during the pull out of the fast near-vertical dive, and crash to the ground, but the autopilot prevented that from happening. The Stuka pilot had excellent view from the cockpit and special indicators which conveniently informed him of his dive angle and when he reached the optimal bomb release altitude, allowing him to focus entirely on precise aiming during the fast steep dive. The Stuka was also very stable, making it easier for the pilot to aim the bomb. It had an arm that moved the bomb away from the aircraft body before releasing it, for better safety. The Stuka had a fixed landing gear with front wheel covers, which allowed the Stuka squadrons to land and take off from primitive unprepared front line "airfields", allowing them to stay close to the rapidly advancing German ground forces, enabling each Stuka to fly up to ten short-range attack sorties every day, making it accordingly several times more efficient than a similar tactical support aircraft that had to fly from more convenient airfields further from the advancing front. Finally, as if the sight and sound of an enemy bomber diving right at you is not frightening enough, Adolf Hitler ordered to equip the Stuka with a screaming siren that made the sound of its dive far more frightening, giving it a greatly enhanced psychological effect which terrorized enemy civilians and soldiers alike, including some anti-aircraft gunners who could fire at it and did not.

Statistics

Spoiler :

As a dive bomber, the early Stuka carried 700kg of bombs, and since 1942 a big 1800kg (4000lb) bomb, which it could aim with great precision (similar bomb load as a modern F-117 stealth fighter). It also had two machine guns which could be used to further suppress anti-aircraft fire from the target. The Stuka was the best and most precise dive bomber of World War 2, so much that the Luftwaffe headquarters insisted that even their heavy bombers should also be able to operate as dive bombers, a stubborn requirement that caused great delays in the development of much needed heavy bombers for the Luftwaffe. The Stuka had one main disadvantage, it was a very easy prey for enemy fighters. It was quite slow, it was not agile (unlike Japanese dive bombers which were almost as agile as fighters after dropping their bomb load), its defensive weapon of two light machine guns operated by a rear gunner, was not enough against fighters, and it was not armored (the Il-2 Sturmovik, the main Russian tactical attack aircraft of World War 2, was very efficiently armored both against fire from the ground and from enemy fighters). As a result of that, the Stuka suffered very heavy losses whenever it operated without air superiority provided by German fighters.

Use

Spoiler :

The Stuka excelled in the German invasions of Poland, Scandinavia, France, North Africa, Greece, and Russia, serving as a key element of the German Blitzkrieg tactic, but in the Battle of Britain, where they first fought in the presence of a strong enemy Air Force, they suffered such high losses that they had to be restricted to anti-shipping missions and level bombing night missions, and later they were removed from the West front and sent to the East, to participate in the invasion of Russia. In the Russian front, a new version of the Stuka was developed, the Ju-87 G was no longer a dive bomber. Instead it was equipped with two 37mm anti-tank guns. Although these guns were no longer effective in ground use against the front thick armor of the modern Russian tanks, they were still very lethal against the much thinner rear and top armor of those tanks. This was basically the German equivalent of the Russian Sturmovik which also used to attack German tanks from the rear. The Stuka excelled in this new dedicated anti-tank role too, although it remained easy prey for fighters. A total number of over 5700 Stuka dive bombers were produced, and until the end of the war there was no new German dive bomber which replaced it.

Aces

Spoiler :

World War 2 produced quite many German aces, and some of them survived long enough and excelled so much that they had almost unbelievable records. Their ever increasing combat achievements, and repeated acts of bravery, were such that the German military used a score system to award its heroes with medals, and new higher levels of the Knights Cross medal were introduced, representing ever higher scores. Of the top group of German war heroes, which included mostly fighter pilots and submarine captains, the highest decorated one, the only recipient of the highest level of the Knights Cross medal, was a Stuka pilot, Hans Ulrich Rudel.
Rudel personally destroyed 519 Russian tanks, and a huge number of other targets, in over 2500 combat missions over the Russian front. He also committed several acts of great bravery, including landings in enemy territory and in the battlefield to rescue downed comrades by taking them back in the small cockpit of the Stuka. In one of those rescue attempts, Rudel's Stuka was stuck in mud, so he and his gunner and comrades had to escape the chasing Russian soldiers on foot all the way back to German lines.

[Zapp]

[Archer]

Application
Name:[FL:RP]Sharpshooter(Sharp)
SteamID:STEAM_0:0:65171839
Specialities:World History,World Wars,Turkish Grammar,Chemistry

[Emil]

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SteamID:STEAM_0:0:65171839
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I endorse Sharp because we need more people to write here.

[sebasti161]

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Name:[FL:RP]Sharpshooter(Sharp)
SteamID:STEAM_0:0:65171839
Specialities:World History,World Wars,Turkish Grammar,Chemistry

I endorse Sharp because we need more people to write here.

denied

[NeonityNL]

John Cena
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[/url]
John Cena

John Cena in 2012
Born
Jonathan Felix Anthony Cena Jr.
April 23, 1977 (age 39)
West Newbury, Massachusetts, United States
Residence
Tampa, Florida, United States[1]
Alma mater
Springfield College
Occupation
Professional wrestler, actor, hip hop artist
Years active
1999–present (wrestler)
2000–present (actor)
2004–2005, 2014 (rapper)
2016–present (reality TV show host)
Spouse(s)
Elizabeth Huberdeau (m. 2009; div. 2012)
Partner(s)
Nikki Bella (2012–present)
Family
Tony Lupien (grandfather)
Tha Trademarc (cousin)

Professional wrestling career
Ring name(s)
John Cena[2]
Juan Cena
The Prototype[3]
Billed height
6 ft 1 in (1.85 m)[4]
Billed weight
251 lb (114 kg)[4]
Billed from
"Classified" (UPW)[5]
West Newbury, Massachusetts (WWE)[4]
Trained by
Dave Finlay
Ohio Valley Wrestling[6]
Ultimate Pro Wrestling[5]
Debut
November 5, 1999[7]
John Felix Anthony Cena Jr. (/ˈsiːnə/; born April 23, 1977) is an American professional wrestler, rapper, actor, and reality television show host signed to WWE, where he is assigned to the SmackDown brand.
Cena started his professional wrestling career in 1999 with Ultimate Pro Wrestling (UPW), and won the UPW Heavyweight Championship the following year.[8] Cena signed a developmental contract with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, later renamed to WWE) in 2001, debuting on the WWE main roster in 2002. From a generic character in 2002, Cena morphed into an arrogant and edgy rapper for the time period of 2002–2004, which earned him a huge stardom within the audience on SmackDown.[9][10] Cena later transitioned to his current character, which he describes as a "goody-two shoes Superman".[11] However, Cena has been labeled as the "most polarizing pro wrestler ever" as his character has many supporters and many detractors.[12] In 2015, WWE credited Cena as being the "face of WWE",[13] while in 2012, IGN described Cena as WWE's franchise playersince 2005.[14]
So far in his career, Cena has won 24 championships, with 15 reigns as a world champion (12 times as WWE Champion – with his last reign being as WWE World Heavyweight Champion[15] – and three times as WWE's World Heavyweight Champion),[16][17] five reigns as United States Champion, and four reigns as world tag team champion (two World Tag Team and two WWE Tag Team). Furthermore, he is a Money in the Bank ladder match winner (2012), a two-time Royal Rumble winner (2008, 2013), and a three-time Superstar of the Year Slammy Award winner (2009, 2010, 2012). Cena has the fourth-highest number of combined days as WWE Champion, behind Bruno Sammartino, Bob Backlund, and Hulk Hogan. He has also headlined WWE's flagship event, WrestleMania, on five different occasions (WrestleManias 22, 23, XXVII, XXVIII, and 29) over the course of his career. Cena also has the most pay-per-view main event matches in WWE history at sixty-eight.
Outside of wrestling, Cena has released the rap album You Can't See Me, which debuted at No. 15 on the US Billboard 200 chart, and starred in the feature films The Marine (2006), 12 Rounds (2009), Legendary (2010), The Reunion (2011), Trainwreck (2015), and Sisters (2015).[18] Cena has also made appearances on television shows including Manhunt, Deal or No Deal, MADtv, Saturday Night Live, Punk'd, Psych, and Parks and Recreation. He was also a contestant on Fast Cars and Superstars: The Gillette Young Guns Celebrity Race, where he made it to the final round before being eliminated, placing third in the overall competition. Cena is also the host of American Grit on Fox.[19]
Cena is involved in numerous philanthropic causes; most notably with the Make-A-Wish Foundation. He has granted the most wishes in Make-A-Wish history.[20]

Contents
  [show] 

Early life

Cena's father, John Cena, Sr.

Cena was born on April 23, 1977 in West Newbury, Massachusetts,[21] the son of Carol (née Lupien) and John Cena, Sr.[22] He is the second oldest of five brothers: Dan, Matt, Steve, and Sean.[23] His maternal grandfather was baseball player Tony Lupien.[24] His father is of Italian and Albanian descent and his mother is of French-Canadian and English ancestry.[25] Cena originally attended Central Catholic High School in Lawrence, Massachusetts, before transferring to Cushing Academy, a private prep boarding school. After graduating from Cushing Academy, Cena attended Springfield College in Springfield, Massachusetts.[26]
In college he was a NCAA Division III All-American center on the college football team,[27] wearing the number 54,[26] which is still used on some of his WWE merchandise.[28][29] He graduated from Springfield in 1998 with a degree in exercise physiology,[30] after which he pursued a career in bodybuilding[31][32] and worked as a driver for a limousine company.[33]

Professional wrestling career
Ultimate Pro Wrestling (1999–2001)
Cena started training to become a professional wrestler in 1999 at Ultimate Pro Wrestling's (UPW) California-based "Ultimate University" operated by Rick Bassman. Once he was placed into an in-ring role, Cena began using a semi-robotic character known as "The Prototype".[3][34] Some of this period of his career was documented in the Discovery Channel program Inside Pro Wrestling School.[35] He held the UPW Heavyweight Championship for 27 days in April 2000.[36] Cena wrestled for the UPW until March 2001.[37]
World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE
Early appearances (2000–2001)
On October 10, 2000, while billed as The Prototype, Cena made his unofficial debut for the then World Wrestling Federation (WWF) on a SmackDown! taping in a dark match against Mikey Richardson, which he lost.[38] He received another tryout on January 9, 2001 at a SmackDown! taping in Oakland, California, this time defeating Aaron Aguilera. Cena wrestled again in a dark match at a SmackDown! taping on March 13.
Ohio Valley Wrestling (2001–2002)
In 2001, Cena signed a developmental contract with the WWF. He was assigned to its developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW).[39] During his time there, Cena wrestled under the ring name The Prototype. He held the OVW Heavyweight Championship for three months and the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship (with Rico Constantino) for two months.[40][41][42]
Throughout 2001, Cena would receive four tryouts for the WWF main roster as he wrestled multiple enhancement talent wrestlers on both WWF house shows and in dark matches before WWF television events. Through the early months of 2002, Cena constantly found himself competing on house shows for the WWF, where he wrestled against the likes of Shelton Benjamin and Tommy Dreamer.
Rise to superstardom (2002–2004)

Cena performing an "FU" (standing fireman's carry takeover) on Kurt Anglein January 2005

Cena made his WWE television debut on the June 27, 2002 episode of SmackDown! by answering an open challenge by Kurt Angle. After declaring that he possessed "ruthless aggression", Cena gave Angle a hard fight and only lost by a pinning combination. After the match, Cena was congratulated by The Undertaker, Rikishi, Faarooq and Billy Kidman.[43][44]Following the near-win, Cena became a fan favorite and started feuding with Chris Jericho, defeating Jericho at Vengeance.[43] On that weeks episode of SmackDown! Cena continued his winning ways defeating Test in a singles match. In September, Cena feuded with Eddie and Chavo Guerrero and Cena picked up a victory over Chavo Guerrero on the September 3, 2002 taping of Velocity. Cena went on to defeat the likes of Albert and D-Von Dudley as he was restricted to appearances on Velocity for the rest of September.[citation needed]
In October, Cena and Billy Kidman took part in a tag team tournament to crown the first WWE Tag Team Champions of the SmackDown! brand, losing in the first round.[45] The next week on SmackDown!, Cena turned on and attacked Kidman, blaming him for their loss, becoming a villain for the first and only time in his career.[43] At Rebellion, Cena teamed with Dawn Marieto take on the team of Billy Kidman and Torrie Wilson in a mixed tag team match in a losing effort. On the October 17 episode of SmackDown!, Cena defeated Kidman in a singles contest,[46] but was defeated by Kidman in a rematch on the October 24 episode of SmackDown!.[47]
Shortly after the Kidman attack, on a Halloween themed episode of SmackDown!, Cena dressed as Vanilla Ice performing a freestyle rap.[43] The next week on SmackDown!, Cena received a new character: a rapper who cut promos while rhyming.[43] As the gimmick grew, Cena began adopting a variant of the 1980s WWF logo – dropping the "F" – as his "signature symbol", along with the slogan "Word Life".[48] Moreover, he was joined by an enforcer, Bull Buchanan, who was rechristened B-2 (also written B² and pronounced "B-Squared").[43] Cena and B-2 failed to capture the WWE Tag Team Championship from Los Guerreros (Eddie and Chavo Guerrero), resulting in Cena replacing B-2 with Red Dogg,[43] until he was sent to the Raw brand in February.
For the first half of 2003, Cena sought the WWE Championship and chased the reigning champion Brock Lesnar after WrestleMania XIX, first having to go through Chris Benoit, who mocked him by wearing a "Toothless Aggression" shirt.[49][50][51] Cena won a number one contender's tournament against Lesnar at Backlash. However, Cena was defeated by Lesnar.[52] At Vengeance, Cena lost a singles match against The Undertaker.[43][53] Cena pursued the United States Championship, but lost to then champion Eddie Guerrero in a Latino Street Fight for the title.
At the end of the year, Cena became a fan favorite again when he joined Kurt Angle as a member of his team at Survivor Series.[54][55] Team Angle would go on to defeat Team Lesnar at the event with John Cena being left the sole survivor. Cena would go on to defeat Team Lesnar members, The Big Show & A-Train in consecutive weeks on SmackDown. At Tribute to the Troops 2003, Cena would defeat Big Show via pinfall.

Cena with his customized United States Championshipbelt

In early 2004, Cena participated in the Royal Rumble match at the 2004 Royal Rumble,[56] making it to the final six before being eliminated by Big Show.[57] The Royal Rumble elimination led to a feud with Big Show,[58][59] which Cena won the United States Championship from Big Show at WrestleMania XX.[60] The reign ended almost four months later, when he was stripped of the title on July 8 by Angle after he accidentally knocked him over, thus attacking an official.[61] Cena won the championship back defeating Booker T in a best of five series that culminated at No Mercy,[62]only to lose it to the débuting Carlito Caribbean Cool the next week.[63] After the loss to Carlito, the duo began a feud, which resulted in Cena allegedly being stabbed in the kidney while at a Boston-area nightclub by Carlito's bodyguard, Jesús.[64][65] This worked injury was used to keep Cena out of action for a month while Cena was filming The Marine.[41] Immediately on his return in November, Cena won the United States Championship back from Carlito.[66][67]
WWE Champion and championship feuds (2005–2007)
Cena took part in the 2005 Royal Rumble match, making it to the final two. Cena and Batista went over the top rope at the same time, ostensibly ending the match. The match was restarted in which Batista eliminated Cena to win.[68] The next month, Cena defeated Kurt Angle to earn a spot in the SmackDown brand's WrestleMania 21 main event match,[69] beginning a feud with then WWE Champion John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) and his Cabinet in the process. In the early stages of the feud, Cena lost his United States Championship to Cabinet member Orlando Jordan,[70]Cena defeated JBL at WrestleMania winning the WWE Championship, giving Cena his first world championship.[71] Cena then had a spinner WWE Championship belt made,[72] while JBL took the original belt and claimed to still be WWE Champion,[72] until Cena reclaimed the original belt in an "I Quit" match at Judgment Day.[73]
Cena was drafted to the Raw brand on June 6, 2005, becoming the first wrestler selected in the annual draft lottery.[74] Cena immediately entered a feud with Eric Bischoff, after refusing to participate in the "war" against the Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) roster at One Night Stand.[75] With Bischoff vowing to make Cena's stint on Raw difficult, he hand picked Jericho to take Cena's championship from him.[76] During their feud, even though Cena was portrayed as the "face" and Jericho as the "heel", a vocal section of live crowds, nonetheless, were cheering Jericho during their matches.[77] Crowds started to heavily boo Cena during his next feud with Kurt Angle,[78] who took over as Bischoff's hand-picked number-one contender after Cena defeated Jericho in a You're Fired match on the August 22 Raw.[79] Cena held on to his championship through his feud with Angle, losing to him by disqualification[80] at Unforgiven and pinning him at Survivor Series.[81] The feud with Angle also saw Cena add a secondary, submission based, finishing maneuver – the STFU (a stepover toehold sleeper, though named for a stepover toehold facelock) – when he was put into a triple threat Submissions Only match on the November 28 Raw.[82]

Cena facing off against Edge at a WWE house show

At New Year's Revolution, Cena participated in the main event Elimination Chamber match where he retained the WWE Championship when he pinned Carlito. Immediately after a bloodied Cena won, Edge made his way to the ring to cash in his Money in the Bank contract – a "guaranteed title match for the WWE Champion at a time and place of the owner's choosing." Two quick spears allowed Edge to pin Cena, winning him the championship.[83] Three weeks later, Cena won the championship back at the Royal Rumble.[83] After winning the championship, Cena began feuding with Triple H, in which the crowd again started booing Cena and cheering the intended villain, Triple H, after being mostly cheered the last few months.[84][85] Cena beat Triple H at WrestleMania 22 to retain his WWE Championship.[6] The negative reaction towards Cena intensified when facing Rob Van Dam at One Night Stand. Taking place in front of a boisterous crowd of mostly original ECW fans at the Hammerstein Ballroom, Cena was met with raucous jeering and chants of "Fuck you, Cena", "You can't wrestle", and "Same old shit". When he began performing different moves into the match, the fans began chanting "You still suck". Cena lost the WWE Championship at One Night Stand, with Van Dam pinning Cena after interference from Edge.[86]

Cena while addressing fans at a Raw show

In July, Edge won the championship from Van Dam in a triple threat match that also involved Cena,[87] re-igniting the feud between him and Cena from earlier in the year. After Edge went about retaining the title by dubious means – getting himself disqualified[88] (for which championships do not change hands) and using brass knuckles[86] – he introduced his own version of Cena's "custom" belt, this one with his logo placed on the spinner.[89] Cena eventually won the championship back in a match and arena of Edge's choice: a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match at Unforgiven at the Air Canada Centre in Edge's hometown of Toronto, Ontario, Canada after FU'ing Edge through two tables off a ladder. The match had a stipulation that, had Cena lost, he would have left the Raw brand for SmackDown.[90][91] Cena returned his version of the spinner belt on the next night's Raw.[92]
On the heels of his feud with Edge, Cena was placed in an inter-brand angle to determine the "Champion of Champions" – or which was the most dominant champion in WWE's three brands. Cena, the World Heavyweight Champion King Booker, and the ECW World Champion Big Show engaged in a mini-feud leading to a triple threat match at Cyber Sunday, with the viewers voting on which of the three championships would be placed on the line.[93] At the same time, Cena became involved in a storyline with non-wrestler Kevin Federline, when he began appearing on Raw with Johnny Nitro and Melina. After getting into a worked physical altercation with Federline on Raw,[93] Federline appeared at Cyber Sunday to hit Cena with the World Heavyweight Championship during the match, helping King Booker retain his championship.[86] 2006 ended with Cena beginning a feud with the undefeated Umaga over the WWE Championship,[94] while 2007 began with the end of his storyline with Kevin Federline. On the first Raw of the new year, Cena was pinned by Federline with an assist from Umaga, although later in the night he was able to get his hands on Federline performing an FU on him.[95]
One night after the Royal Rumble, an impromptu team of Cena and Shawn Michaels defeated Rated-RKO (Edge and Randy Orton) for the World Tag Team Championship, making Cena a double champion.[96] On the April 2 episode of Raw, after losing a WWE Championship match to Cena at WrestleMania 23,[97] Michaels turned on Cena, costing them the championship in the second of two 10 team battles royals, by throwing Cena over the top rope and eliminating the team. The Hardys (Matt and Jeff) eventually won the match and the championship.[98] For the rest of the month, Cena feuded with Michaels, Orton, and Edge until The Great Khali declared his intentions to challenge for Cena's championship attacking and "laying out" all three of the top contenders[99] before assaulting Cena himself and stealing the physical belt.[100] For the next two months, Cena feuded with Khali over the championship, eventually becoming the first person in WWE to defeat him by submission at Judgment Day[101][102] and then by pinfall at One Night Stand.[103][104] Later that summer, Randy Orton was named the number one contender for the WWE Championship,[105] starting a feud between the two. Leading up to SummerSlam, Orton delivered a number of sneak-attacks, performing three RKOs to Cena, but in the actual match, Cena retained the championship.[106] A rematch between the two occurred at Unforgiven, with Orton winning by disqualification after Cena ignored the referee's instructions and continued to beat on him in the corner.[107]
During a match with Mr. Kennedy on the October 1, 2007 episode of Raw, Cena suffered a legitimate torn pectoral muscle while executing a hip toss.[108] Though finishing the match and taking part in the scripted attack by Randy Orton after the match, surgery the following day found that his pectoralis major muscle was torn completely from the bone, estimating at the time to require seven months to a year of rehabilitation.[109][110] As a result, Cena was stripped of the title by Mr. McMahon on the next night's episode of ECW,[111] ending what was the longest WWE Championship reign in over 19 years.[112] Cena's surgery was performed by orthopedic surgeon James Andrews at St. Vincent's Hospital in Birmingham, Alabama.[108] Two weeks later, in a video update on WWE.com, Dr. Andrews and Cena's physical trainer both said that he was several weeks ahead of where he was expected to be in his rehabilitation at that time.[113] Despite his injury, Cena attended the annual WWE's Tribute to the Troops show filmed at Camp Speicher in Tikrit, Iraq on December 7, and aired on December 24.[114]
World Heavyweight Champion and various feuds (2008–2010)

Cena as one half of the [url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_(WWE)]World Tag Team Champions

Cena made a surprise return as the final participant of the [color=#0b0080]Royal Rumble match, winning the match, and the traditional WrestleMania title shot, by last eliminating Triple H.[115] Instead of waiting until WrestleMania, the title shot was cashed in against then WWE Champion Randy Orton at February's No Way Out pay-per-view[116] in a match where Cena won by disqualification, resulting in him not getting the championship.[117] The night after No Way Out, Cena was placed back into WrestleMania XXIV's WWE Championship match, making it a triple threat match also involving Triple H,[118] during which he was pinned by Orton.[119] At Backlash, Cena failed to regain the title in a fatal four-way elimination match, in which he was pinned by Orton.[120] Triple H won the title during that match. During the match, Cena eliminated JBL,[120] renewing their feud from 2005. Cena defeated JBL at Judgment Day and then at One Night Stand in a First Blood match.[121][122] JBL, however, defeated him in a New York City 

[Emil]

The First Crusade

Origin

The origin of the Crusades in general, and particularly that of the First Crusade, is widely debated among historians. The confusion is partially due to the numerous armies in the first crusade, and their lack of direct unity. The similar ideologies held the armies to similar goals, but the connections were rarely strong, and the unity broke down often.

The Crusades are most commonly linked to the political and social situation in 11th-century Europe, the rise of a reform movement within the papacy, and the political and religious confrontation of Christianity and Islam in Europe and the Middle East. Christianity had spread throughout Europe, Africa, and the Middle East in Late Antiquity, but by the early 8th century Christian rule had become limited to Europe and Anatolia after the Muslim conquests.

The Umayyad Caliphate had conquered Syria, Egypt, and North Africa from the predominantly Christian Byzantine Empire, and Hispania from the Visigothic Kingdom. In North Africa, the Umayyad empire eventually collapsed and a number of smaller Muslim kingdoms emerged, such as the Aghlabids, who attacked Italy in the 9th century. Pisa, Genoa, and the Principality of Catalonia began to battle various Muslim kingdoms for control of the Mediterranean Basin, exemplified by the Mahdia campaign and battles at Majorca and Sardinia.

In the early summer of 1096, the first large unruly group arrived on the outskirts of Constantinople. This wave was reported to be undisciplined and ill-equipped as an army. This first group is often called the Peasants’ or People’s Crusade. It was led by Peter the Hermit and Walter Sans Avoir and had no knowledge of or respect for the wishes of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Comnenus.

The second wave was also not under the command of the Emperor and was made up of a number of armies with their own commanders. Together, this group and the first wave numbered an estimated 60,000.
The second wave was led by Hugh I, Count of Vermandois, the brother of King Philip I of France. Also among the second wave were Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse and the army of Provençals. "It was this second wave of crusaders which later passed through Asia Minor, captured Antioch in 1098 and finally took Jerusalem 15 July 1099.”

The third wave, composed of contingents from Lombardy, France, and Bavaria, arrived in Jerusalem in the early summer of 1101.

People's Crusade

The great French nobles and their trained armies of knights, however, were not the first to undertake the journey towards Jerusalem. Urban had planned the departure of the first crusade for 15 August 1096, the Feast of the Assumption, but months before this, a number of unexpected armies of peasants and petty nobles set off for Jerusalem on their own, led by a charismatic priest called Peter the Hermit. Peter was the most successful of the preachers of Urban's message, and developed an almost hysterical enthusiasm among his followers, although he was probably not an "official" preacher sanctioned by Urban at Clermont.

Lacking military discipline, in what likely seemed to the participants a strange land (Eastern Europe), Peter's fledgling army quickly found itself in trouble despite the fact they were still in Christian territory. The army led by Walter fought with the Hungarians over food at Belgrade, but otherwise arrived in Constantinople unharmed. Meanwhile, the army led by Peter, which marched separately from Walter's army, also fought with the Hungarians, and may have captured Belgrade. At Nish the Byzantine governor tried to supply them, but Peter had little control over his followers and Byzantine troops were needed to quell their attacks. Peter arrived at Constantinople in August, where his army joined with the one led by Walter, which had already arrived, as well as separate bands of crusaders from France, Germany, and Italy. Another army of Bohemians and Saxons did not make it past Hungary before splitting up.

This unruly mob began to attack and pillage outside the city in search of supplies and food, prompting Alexios to hurriedly ferry the gathering across the Bosporus one week later. After crossing into Asia Minor, the crusaders split up and began to pillage the countryside, wandering into Seljuq territory around Nicaea. The greater experience of the Turks was overwhelming; most of this group of the crusaders were massacred. Some Italian and German crusaders were defeated and killed at Xerigordon at the end of August. Meanwhile, Walter and Peter's followers, who, although for the most part untrained in battle but led by about 50 knights, fought a battle against the Turks at Civitot in October. The Turkish archers destroyed the crusader army, and Walter was among the dead. Peter, who was absent in Constantinople at the time, later joined the main crusader army, along with the few survivors of Civetot.

Princes' Crusade

The four main crusader armies left Europe around the appointed time in August 1096. They took different paths to Constantinople and gathered outside its city walls between November 1096 and April 1097; Hugh of Vermandois arrived first, followed by Godfrey, Raymond, and Bohemond. This time, Emperor Alexios was more prepared for the crusaders; there were fewer incidents of violence along the way.

The size of the entire crusader army is difficult to estimate; various numbers were given by the eyewitnesses, and equally various estimates have been offered by modern historians. Crusader military historian David Nicolle considers the armies to have consisted of about 30,000–35,000 crusaders, including 5,000 cavalry. Raymond had the largest contingent of about 8,500 infantry and 1,200 cavalry.

The crusaders may have expected Alexios to become their leader, but he had no interest in joining them, and was mainly concerned with transporting them into Asia Minor as quickly as possible. In return for food and supplies, Alexios requested the leaders to swear fealty to him and promise to return to the Byzantine Empire any land recovered from the Turks. Godfrey was the first to take the oath, and almost all the other leaders followed him, although they did so only after warfare had almost broken out in the city between the citizens and the crusaders, who were eager to pillage for supplies. Raymond alone avoided swearing the oath, instead pledging that he would simply cause no harm to the Empire. Before ensuring that the various armies were shuttled across the Bosporus, Alexios advised the leaders on how best to deal with the Seljuq armies that they would soon encounter.

Siege of Nicaea

The Crusader armies crossed over into Asia Minor during the first half of 1097, where they were joined by Peter the Hermit and the remainder of his little army. In addition, Alexios also sent two of his own generals, Manuel Boutoumites and Tatikios, to assist the crusaders. The first objective of their campaign was Nicaea, previously a city under Byzantine rule, but which had become the capital of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum under Kilij Arslan I. Arslan was away campaigning against the Danishmends in central Anatolia at the time, and had left behind his treasury and his family, underestimating the strength of these new crusaders.

Subsequently, upon the Crusaders' arrival, the city was subjected to a lengthy siege, and when Arslan had word of it he rushed back to Nicaea and attacked the crusader army on 16 May. He was driven back by the unexpectedly large crusader force, with heavy losses being suffered on both sides in the ensuing battle. The siege continued, but the crusaders had little success as they found they could not blockade the lake, which the city was situated on, and from which it could be provisioned. To break the city, Alexios sent the Crusaders' ships rolled over land on logs, and at the sight of them the Turkish garrison finally surrendered on 18 June. The city was handed over to the Byzantine troops, which has often been depicted as a source of conflict between the Empire and the crusaders; Byzantine standards flew from the walls while the crusaders were forbidden from looting the city or even entering it except in small escorted bands.

However, this policy was in accordance with the previous oaths made to Alexios, and the emperor ensured that the crusaders were well-paid for their efforts. As Thomas Asbridge writes, "the fall of Nicaea was a product of the successful policy of close co-operation between the crusaders and Byzantium." After handing custody of Nicaea to the Byzantines, the crusaders resumed their march to Jerusalem. Stephen of Blois, in a letter to his wife Adela of Blois wrote that he believed the journey would take five weeks; in reality, it took two years.

Battle of Dorylaeum

At the end of June, the crusaders marched on through Anatolia. They were accompanied by some Byzantine troops under Tatikios, and still harboured the hope that Alexios would send a full Byzantine army after them. They also divided the army into two more-easily managed groups—one contingent led by the Normans, the other by the French.  The two groups intended to meet again at Dorylaeum, but on 1 July the Normans, who had marched ahead of the French, were attacked by Kilij Arslan. Arslan had gathered a much larger army than he previously had after his defeat at Nicaea, and now surrounded the Normans with his fast-moving mounted archers. The Normans "deployed in a tight-knit defensive formation",  surrounding all their equipment and the non-combatants who had followed them along the journey, and sent for help from the other group. When the French arrived, Godfrey broke through the Turkish lines and the legate Adhemar outflanked the Turks from the rear; thus the Turks, who had expected to destroy the Normans and did not anticipate the quick arrival of the French, fled rather than face the combined crusader army.

The crusaders' march through Anatolia was thereafter unopposed, but the journey was unpleasant, as Arslan had burned and destroyed everything he left behind in his army's flight. It was the middle of summer, and the crusaders had very little food and water; many men and horses died.  Fellow Christians sometimes gave them gifts of food and money, but more often than not, the crusaders simply looted and pillaged whenever the opportunity presented itself. Individual leaders continued to dispute the overall leadership, although none of them were powerful enough to take command on their own, as Adhemar was always recognized as the spiritual leader. After passing through the Cilician Gates, Baldwin of Boulogne set off on his own towards the Armenian lands around the Euphrates; his wife, his only claim to European lands and wealth, had died after the battle, giving Baldwin no incentive to return to Europe. Thus, he resolved to seize a fiefdom for himself in the Holy Land. Early in 1098, he was adopted as heir by Thoros of Edessa, a ruler who was disliked by his Armenian subjects for his Greek Orthodox religion. Thoros was later killed, during an uprising that Baldwin may have instigated. Then, in March 1098, Baldwin became the new ruler, thus creating the County of Edessa, the first of the crusader states.

Siege of Antioch

The crusader army, meanwhile, marched on to Antioch, which lay about halfway between Constantinople and Jerusalem. Described by Stephen of Blois as "a city great beyond belief, very strong and unassailable", the idea of taking the city by assault was a discouraging one to the crusaders. Hoping rather to force a capitulation, or find a traitor inside the city—a tactic that had previously seen Antioch change to the control of the Byzantines and then the Seljuq Turks—the crusader army set Antioch to siege on 20 October 1097. During the almost eight months of the siege, they were forced to defeat two large relief armies under the leadership of Duqaq and Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan. Antioch was so large that the crusaders did not have enough troops to fully surround it, and as a result it was able to stay partially supplied. On 4 March 1098, relief arrived in the form of a Crusader fleet, the "Saxon Crusade", bringing much needed supplies from the west.

In May 1098, Kerbogha of Mosul approached Antioch to relieve the siege. Bohemond bribed an Armenian guard named Firuz to surrender his tower, and in June the crusaders entered the city and killed most of the inhabitants. However, only a few days later the Muslims arrived, laying siege to the former besiegers.  According to Raymond D'Aguilers, it was at this point that a monk named Peter Bartholomew claimed to have discovered the Holy Lance in the city, and although some were skeptical, this was seen as a sign that they would be victorious.

On 28 June 1098, the crusaders defeated Kerbogha in a pitched battle outside the city, a victory caused by Kerbogha's inability to organize the different factions in his army. While the crusaders were marching towards the Muslims, the Fatimid section of the army deserted the Turkish contingent, as they feared Kerbogha would become too powerful were he able to defeat the Crusaders. According to Christian eyewitnesses, an army of Christian saints came to the aid of the crusaders during the battle and crippled Kerbogha's army.

Stephen of Blois, a Crusade leader, was in Alexandretta when he learned of the situation in Antioch. It seemed like their situation was hopeless so he left the Middle East, warning Alexios and his army on his way back to France.  Because of what looked like a massive betrayal, the leaders at Antioch, most notably Bohemond, argued that Alexios had deserted the Crusade and thus invalidated all of their oaths to him. While Bohemond asserted his claim to Antioch, not everyone agreed (most notably Raymond of Toulouse), so the crusade was delayed for the rest of the year while the nobles argued amongst themselves. When discussing this period, a common historiographical viewpoint advanced by some scholars is that the Franks of northern France, the Provençals of southern France, and the Normans of southern Italy considered themselves separate "nations", creating turmoil as each tried to increase its individual status. Others argue that while this may have had something to do with the disputes, personal ambition among the Crusader leaders might just be as easily blamed.

Meanwhile, a plague broke out, killing many among the army, including the legate Adhemar, who died on 1 August.There were now even fewer horses than before, and worse, the Muslim peasants in the area refused to supply the crusaders with food. Thus, in December, after the Arab town of Ma'arrat al-Numan was captured following a siege, history describes the first occurrence of cannibalism among the crusaders. Radulph of Caen wrote, "In Ma'arrat our troops boiled pagan adults in cooking pots; they impaled children on spits and devoured them grilled."  At the same time, the minor knights and soldiers had become increasingly restless and threatened to continue to Jerusalem without their squabbling leaders. Finally, at the beginning of 1099, the march restarted, leaving Bohemond behind as the first Prince of Antioch.

Siege of Jerusalem

Crusaders' arrival at Jerusalem revealed an arid countryside, lacking in water or food supplies. Here there was no prospect of relief, even as they feared an imminent attack by the local Fatimid rulers. There was no hope of trying to blockade the city as they had at Antioch; the crusaders had insufficient troops, supplies, and time. Rather, they resolved to take the city by assault. They might have been left with little choice, as by the time the Crusader army reached Jerusalem, it has been estimated that only about 12,000 men including 1,500 cavalry remained. These contingents, composed of men with differing origins and varying allegiances, were also approaching another low ebb in their camaraderie; e.g., while Godfrey and Tancred made camp to the north of the city, Raymond made his to the south. In addition, the Provençal contingent did not take part in the initial assault on 13 June. This first assault was perhaps more speculative than determined, and after scaling the outer wall the Crusaders were repulsed from the inner one.

After the failure of the initial assault, a meeting between the various leaders was organized in which it was agreed upon that a more concerted attack would be required in the future. On 17 June, a party of Genoese mariners under Guglielmo Embriaco arrived at Jaffa, and provided the Crusaders with skilled engineers, and perhaps more critically, supplies of timber (cannibalized from the ships) to build siege engines. The Crusaders' morale was raised when a priest, Peter Desiderius, claimed to have had a divine vision, of Bishop Adhemar, instructing them to fast and then march in a barefoot procession around the city walls, after which the city would fall, following the Biblical story of Joshua at the siege of Jericho. After a three days fast, on 8 July the crusaders performed the procession as they had been instructed by Desiderius, ending on the Mount of Olives where Peter the Hermit preached to them, and shortly afterward the various bickering factions arrived at a public rapprochement. News arrived shortly after that a Fatimid relief army had set off from Egypt, giving the Crusaders a very strong incentive to make another assault on the city.

The final assault on Jerusalem began on 13 July; Raymond's troops attacked the south gate while the other contingents attacked the northern wall. Initially the Provençals at the southern gate made little headway, but the contingents at the northern wall fared better, with a slow but steady attrition of the defence. On 15 July, a final push was launched at both ends of the city, and eventually the inner rampart of the northern wall was captured. In the ensuing panic, the defenders abandoned the walls of the city at both ends, allowing the Crusaders to finally enter.

Battle of Ascalon

The crusaders had attempted to negotiate with the Fatimids during their march to Jerusalem, but to no avail. After the crusaders captured Jerusalem from the Fatimids, they learned of a Fatimid army about to attack them. On 10 August Godfrey of Bouillon led the remaining troops from Jerusalem to Ascalon, a day's march away.

The Fatimids were estimated to have as many as 50,000 troops (other sources estimate about 20,000–30,000) entering the battle. Their troops consisted of Seljuq Turks, Arabs, Persians, Kurds, and Ethiopians, led by vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah. Opposing them were the crusaders, whose numbers, estimated by Raymond of Aguilers, were around 1,200 knights and 9,000 infantry.

On 12 August, crusader scouts discovered the location of the Fatimid camp, which the crusaders immediately marched towards. According to most crusader and Muslim accounts, the Fatimids were caught unaware. Because of a somewhat ill-prepared Fatimid army, the battle was fairly short, although it still took some time to resolve, according to Albert of Aix. al-Afdal Shahanshah and his army retreated into the heavily guarded and fortified city of Ascalon.
The next day the crusaders learned that al-Afdal Shahanshah had retreated back to Egypt via boat, so they plundered what remained of the Fatimid camp. After returning to Jerusalem most of the crusaders returned to their homes in Europe.

Aftermath

The First Crusade succeeded in establishing the "crusader states" of Edessa, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Tripoli in Palestine and Syria (as well as allies along the Crusaders' route, such as the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia).

Back at home in Western Europe, those who had survived to reach Jerusalem were treated as heroes. Robert of Flanders was nicknamed "Hierosolymitanus" thanks to his exploits. The life of Godfrey of Bouillon became legendary even within a few years of his death. In some cases, the political situation at home was greatly affected by crusader absences. For instance, while Robert Curthose was away on crusade the throne of England had passed to his brother Henry I of England instead, and their resultant conflict led to the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106.

Meanwhile, the establishment of the crusader states in the east helped ease Seljuq pressure on the Byzantine Empire, which had regained some of its Anatolian territory with crusader help, and experienced a period of relative peace and prosperity in the 12th century. The effect on the Muslim dynasties of the east was gradual but important. In the wake of the death of Malik Shah I in 1092, political instability and the division of the Great Seljuq Empire prevented a coherent defence against the Latin states. Cooperation between them remained difficult for many decades, but from Egypt to Syria to Baghdad there were calls for the expulsion of the crusaders, culminating in the recapture of Jerusalem under Saladin later in the century when the Ayyubids had united the surrounding areas.


The Crusader States